"cultivation") is a term that has many different inter-related me...
"cultivation") is a term that has many different inter-related meanings.

For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled...
For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions.

However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic ...
However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses: Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization, or group When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture.

In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterme...
In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals.

In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "cul...
In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity.

For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg Simmel, culture re...
For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".

In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central ...
In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics.

Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two...
Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.

Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with di...
Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with different meanings, in other disciplines such as cultural studies, organizational psychology, the sociology of culture and management studies.

The etymology of the modern term "culture" has a classical origin...
The etymology of the modern term "culture" has a classical origin.

In English, the word "culture" is based on a term used by Cicero,...
In English, the word "culture" is based on a term used by Cicero, in his Tusculan Disputations, wrote of a cultivation of the soul or "cultura animi", thereby using an agricultural metaphor to describe the development of a philosophical soul, which was understood teleologically as the one natural highest possible ideal for human development.

Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, mea...
Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy is man's natural perfection.

His use, and that of many writers after him "refers to all the wa...
His use, and that of many writers after him "refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human".

As described by Velkley: The term "culture," which originally me...
As described by Velkley: The term "culture," which originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meanings in the writings of the eighteenth-century German thinkers, who on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of modern liberalism and Enlightenment.

Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually i...
Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.

Two primary meanings of culture emerge from this period: culture ...
Two primary meanings of culture emerge from this period: culture as the folk-spirit having a unique identity, and culture as cultivation of inwardness or free individuality.

The first meaning is predominant in our current use of the term "...
The first meaning is predominant in our current use of the term "culture," although the second still plays a large role in what we think culture should achieve, namely the full "expression" of the unique of "authentic" self.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an in...
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of "enlightenment" similar to the concept of bildung: "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.

" He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of underst...
" He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.

Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: Sapere aude, "Da...
Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: Sapere aude, "Dare to be wise!" In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality.

Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of bildung: "For Herd...
Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of bildung: "For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.

" In 1795, the great linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humbol...
" In 1795, the great linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests.

During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those co...
During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "worldview.

" According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a di...
" According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.

Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to cult...
Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures.

In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity ...
In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind".

He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies w...
He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.

According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "element...
According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" (Elementargedanken); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" (Völkergedanken), are local modifications of the elementary ideas.

This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture....
This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture.

Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brou...
Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.

British poet and critic Matthew Arnold viewed "culture" as the cu...
British poet and critic Matthew Arnold viewed "culture" as the cultivation of the humanist ideal.

British anthropologist Edward Tylor was one of the first English-...
British anthropologist Edward Tylor was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term culture in an inclusive and universal sense.

In the nineteenth century, humanists such as English poet and ess...
In the nineteenth century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world.

" This concept of culture is comparable to the German concept of ...
" This concept of culture is comparable to the German concept of bildung: ".

Culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getti...
Culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.

" In practice, culture referred to an élite ideal and was associ...
" In practice, culture referred to an élite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine.

As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was ide...
As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from lat.

Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklor...
Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites.

This distinction is often characterized as that between "high cul...
This distinction is often characterized as that between "high culture", namely that of the ruling social group, and "low culture.

" In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe ...
" In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.

Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with "anarchy;" other Europea...
Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with "anarchy;" other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature".

According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were b...
According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized.